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Unter der '''Karzinogenese''' versteht man die Entstehung und Entwicklung von bösartigen Zellen (Tumorzellen, Krebszellen) aus normalem Zellgewebe.
 
==Früheres Dreistufenmodell==
 
Früher ging man von einem Dreistufenmodell aus. Inzwischen mehren sich die Erkenntnisse, dass die Tumorentstehung wesentlich komplexer ist.
 
===Initation===
 
* Mutation einer Zelle, durch ein [[Karzinogen]] (krebsauslösendes Agens) verursacht
 
===Promotion===
 
* Vermehrung der mutierten Zelle, durch einen Wachstumsreiz angestoßen
* Weitergabe der Mutation an die Tochterzellen
 
===Progression===
 
* Weitere Vermehrung der mutierten Zellen
* Entdifferenzierung der Zellen (die mutieren Zellen zeigen unterschiedliche Eigenschaften)
* Ausbildung eines Tumorgewebes
* Gefäßeinsprossung in den Tumor
* Ausbildung von Metastasen (Tochtergeschwülsten) in der näheren Umgebung oder an anderen Körperstellen
 
==Zeitverlauf==
 
Zwischen der ersten Mutation in einer Zelle und dem Ausbilden von Tumorgewebe kann ein Zeitraum von Jahren oder mehreren Jahrzehnten liegen.
 
==Bitte beachten==
 
Bitte beachten Sie den [[Warnhinweis Gesundheitsthemen]].
 
== Bibliographie ==
 
{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
| bgcolor="#dfdfdf" | '''Freie Übersichtsartikel'''
| bgcolor="#dfdfdf" | '''Freie Übersichtsartikel'''
| align="left" width="800" |<ref name="PMID1860619">Facts and theories concerning the mechanisms of carcinogenesis. FASEB J 5(9):2280-6 (1991) PMID 1860619 </ref><ref name="PMID16464822">Molecular models for the tissue specificity of DNA mismatch repair-deficient carcinogenesis. Nucleic Acids Res 34(3):840-52 (2006) PMID 16464822 </ref><ref name="PMID4554532">Current status of chemical carcinogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 69(4):1052-5 (1972) PMID 4554532 </ref><ref name="PMID9353177">Human cancer syndromes: clues to the origin and nature of cancer. Science 278(5340):1043-50 (1997) PMID 9353177 </ref><ref name="PMID18538731">Tumor cell metabolism: cancer's Achilles' heel. Cancer Cell 13(6):472-82 (2008) PMID 18538731 </ref><ref name="PMID17097558">Thrombin induces tumor growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis: Evidence for a thrombin-regulated dormant tumor phenotype. Cancer Cell 10(5):355-62 (2006) PMID 17097558 </ref><ref name="PMID15607958">Crosslinks and crosstalk: human cancer syndromes and DNA repair defects. Cancer Cell 6(6):539-45 (2004) PMID 15607958 </ref><ref name="PMID14706333">Defective autophagy leads to cancer. Cancer Cell 4(6):422-4 (2003) PMID 14706333 </ref><ref name="PMID16564003">Connecting cancer to the asymmetric division of stem cells. Cell 124(6):1121-3 (2006) PMID 16564003 </ref><ref name="PMID14744434">Principles of tumor suppression. Cell 116(2):235-46 (2004) PMID 14744434 </ref><ref name="PMID11832205">Cancer as a complex genetic trait: tumor susceptibility in humans and mouse models. Cell 108(2):145-52 (2002) PMID 11832205 </ref><ref name="PMID11832204">Cancer modeling in the modern era: progress and challenges. Cell 108(2):135-44 (2002) PMID 11832204 </ref><ref name="PMID11239390">Spontaneous DNA damage, genome instability, and cancer--when DNA replication escapes control. Cell 104(3):329-32 (2001) PMID 11239390 </ref><ref name="PMID10647931">The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100(1):57-70 (2000) PMID 10647931 </ref><ref name="PMID18177721">The biology of cancer: metabolic reprogramming fuels cell growth and proliferation. Cell Metab 7(1):11-20 (2008) PMID 18177721 </ref><ref name="PMID18397746">Cancer: inappropriate expression of stem cell programs? Cell Stem Cell 2(4):297-9 (2008) PMID 18397746 </ref><ref name="PMID8939708">Matrix metalloproteinases and the development of cancer. Chem Biol 3(11):895-904 (1996) PMID 8939708 </ref><ref name="PMID8805238">Failure to unwind causes cancer. Genome stability. Curr Biol 6(3):265-7 (1996) PMID 8805238 </ref><ref name="PMID11602239">How carcinogens (or telomere dysfunction) induce genetic instability: associated-selection model. FEBS Lett 506(3):169-72 (2001) PMID 11602239 </ref><ref name="PMID18416028">Oncoproteins, heterochromatin silencing and microRNAs: a new link for leukemogenesis. Epigenetics 3(1):1-4 (2008) PMID 18416028 </ref><ref name="PMID18285822">XPC polymorphisms play a role in tissue-specific carcinogenesis: a meta-analysis. Eur J Hum Genet 16(6):724-34 (2008) PMID 18285822 </ref><ref name="PMID11568302">Differentiation genes: are they primary targets for human carcinogenesis? Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 226(9):805-13 (2001) PMID 11568302 </ref><ref name="PMID9560381">Hypermutability in carcinogenesis. Genetics 148(4):1619-26 (1998) PMID 9560381 </ref><ref name="PMID9560375">Transient and heritable mutators in adaptive evolution in the lab and in nature. Genetics 148(4):1559-66 (1998) PMID 9560375 </ref><ref name="PMID9560368">The mutation rate and cancer. Genetics 148(4):1483-90 (1998) PMID 9560368 </ref><ref name="PMID17613554">Genome-epigenome interactions in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R96-105 (2007) PMID 17613554 </ref><ref name="PMID17613553">Action at a distance: epigenetic silencing of large chromosomal regions in carcinogenesis. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R88-95 (2007) PMID 17613553 </ref><ref name="PMID17613548">Cancer genes associated with phenotypes in monoallelic and biallelic mutation carriers: new lessons from old players. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R60-6 (2007) PMID 17613548 </ref><ref name="PMID17613546">Cancer genetics of epigenetic genes. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R28-49 (2007) PMID 17613546 </ref><ref name="PMID17613543">miRNAs in cancer: approaches, aetiology, diagnostics and therapy. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R106-13 (2007) PMID 17613543 </ref><ref name="PMID17613542">Non-mammalian models for epigenetic analyses in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R1-6 (2007) PMID 17613542 </ref><ref name="PMID15809277">Histone modifying and chromatin remodelling enzymes in cancer and dysplastic syndromes. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R85-92 (2005) PMID 15809277 </ref><ref name="PMID15809276">Chromatin modifying activity of leukaemia associated fusion proteins. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R77-84 (2005) PMID 15809276 </ref><ref name="PMID15809275">Cancer epigenetics. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R65-76 (2005) PMID 15809275 </ref><ref name="PMID12351584">Cancer epigenomics. Hum Mol Genet 11(20):2479-88 (2002) PMID 12351584 </ref><ref name="PMID11257107">DNA helicase deficiencies associated with cancer predisposition and premature ageing disorders. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):741-6 (2001) PMID 11257107 </ref><ref name="PMID11257100">Aberrant patterns of DNA methylation, chromatin formation and gene expression in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):687-92 (2001) PMID 11257100 </ref><ref name="PMID11257098">Unraveling human cancer in the mouse: recent refinements to modeling and analysis. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):669-75 (2001) PMID 11257098 </ref><ref name="PMID8875255">Mismatch repair defects in human carcinogenesis. Hum Mol Genet 5 Spec No():1489-94 (1996) PMID 8875255 </ref><ref name="PMID17613457">IMPACTS project: preparing therapists to provide best practice early intervention services. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 27(3):73-90 (2007) PMID 17613457 </ref><ref name="PMID17322365">Murine models to evaluate novel and conventional therapeutic strategies for cancer. Am J Pathol 170(3):793-804 (2007) PMID 17322365 </ref><ref name="PMID17071576">The metabolic syndrome: A high-risk state for cancer? Am J Pathol 169(5):1505-22 (2006) PMID 17071576 </ref><ref name="PMID10623645">Gammaherpesviruses and &quot;Hit-and-Run&quot; oncogenesis. Am J Pathol 156(1):1-3 (2000) PMID 10623645 </ref><ref name="PMID7677168">Mutations of cell cycle regulators. Biological and clinical implications for human neoplasia. Am J Pathol 147(3):545-60 (1995) PMID 7677168 </ref><ref name="PMID8129029">Experimental production of primitive neuroectodermal tumors and its relevance to human neuro-oncology. 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Can Med Assoc J 130(7):863-7 (1984) PMID 6367918 </ref><ref name="PMID14084703">CURRENT CONCEPTS OF CANCER. Can Med Assoc J 89():1224-9 (1963) PMID 14084703 </ref><ref name="PMID13773850">The viral etiology of neoplasms--a review. Can Med Assoc J 83():1049-63 (1960) PMID 13773850 </ref><ref name="PMID15254400">Genomic instability in cancer: biological and mathematical approaches. Cell Cycle 3(8):1081-5 (2004) PMID 15254400 </ref><ref name="PMID12963842">Normal cells arrest cancer cells in G2. Cell Cycle 2(5):454 (2003) PMID 12963842 </ref><ref name="PMID12734426">Multistep carcinogenesis: a chain reaction of aneuploidizations. Cell Cycle 2(3):202-10 (2003) PMID 12734426 </ref><ref name="PMID16840508">Colorectal cancer: a model for epigenetic tumorigenesis. Gut 56(1):140-8 (2007) PMID 16840508 </ref><ref name="PMID16118353">Prostaglandins and cancer. Gut 55(1):115-22 (2006) PMID 16118353 </ref><ref name="PMID18693168">Molecular aspects of carcinogenesis in pancreatic cancer. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 7(4):345-56 (2008) PMID 18693168 </ref><ref name="PMID11506289">Hypercarcinogenic state in chronic liver disease. Intern Med 40(7):555-6 (2001) PMID 11506289 </ref><ref name="PMID18982163">Following the cytokine signaling pathway to leukemogenesis: a chronology. J Clin Invest 118(11):3564-73 (2008) PMID 18982163 </ref><ref name="PMID15563660">Aneuploidy and malignancy: an unsolved equation. J Clin Pathol 57(12):1245-9 (2004) PMID 15563660 </ref><ref name="PMID2654188">A mutational theory of leukaemogenesis. J Clin Pathol 42(4):337-40 (1989) PMID 2654188 </ref><ref name="PMID19506345">Radiation-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rodent models: what's different from chemical carcinogenesis? J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 50(4):281-93 (2009) PMID 19506345 </ref><ref name="PMID18596371">Repair system of 7, 8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine as a defense line against carcinogenesis. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 49(4):329-40 (2008) PMID 18596371 </ref><ref name="PMID17019056">Transgenerational effects of radiation and chemicals in mice and humans. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 47 Suppl B():B83-97 (2006) PMID 17019056 </ref><ref name="PMID11393886">Role of the Escherichia coli and human DNA glycosylases that remove 5-formyluracil from DNA in the prevention of mutations. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 42(1):11-9 (2001) PMID 11393886 </ref><ref name="PMID9616488">Cell and molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis and treatment of cancer. Postgrad Med J 74(868):77-88 (1998) PMID 9616488 </ref><ref name="PMID223141">Some aspects of the role of viruses in cancer. Postgrad Med J 55(640):150-8 (1979) PMID 223141 </ref><ref name="PMID18566022">Liver is a target of arsenic carcinogenesis. Toxicol Sci 105(1):24-32 (2008) PMID 18566022 </ref><ref name="PMID14737005">Evaluating the human relevance of chemically induced animal tumors. Toxicol Sci 78(2):181-6 (2004) PMID 14737005 </ref><ref name="PMID12563100">Disruption of gap junctions in toxicity and carcinogenicity. Toxicol Sci 71(2):146-53 (2003) PMID 12563100 </ref><ref name="PMID11606797">Alternative models for carcinogenicity testing. Toxicol Sci 64(1):14-9 (2001) PMID 11606797 </ref><ref name="PMID10478853">The Single Exposure Carcinogen Database: assessing the circumstances under which a single exposure to a carcinogen can cause cancer. Toxicol Sci 50(2):169-85 (1999) PMID 10478853 </ref><ref name="PMID20135713">Iron: an emerging factor in colorectal carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 16(6):663-72 (2010) PMID 20135713 </ref><ref name="PMID19610133">Bile acids as endogenous etiologic agents in gastrointestinal cancer. World J Gastroenterol 15(27):3329-40 (2009) PMID 19610133 </ref><ref name="PMID19360913">Reactive oxygen species: a double-edged sword in oncogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 15(14):1702-7 (2009) PMID 19360913 </ref><ref name="PMID19152444">Midkine translocated to nucleoli and involved in carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 15(4):412-6 (2009) PMID 19152444 </ref><ref name="PMID19058325">Mouse models in liver cancer research: a review of current literature. World J Gastroenterol 14(45):6915-23 (2008) PMID 19058325 </ref><ref name="PMID19034964">Azoxymethane-induced rat aberrant crypt foci: relevance in studying chemoprevention of colon cancer. World J Gastroenterol 14(43):6632-5 (2008) PMID 19034964 </ref><ref name="PMID18609701">Epithelial-mesenchymal transition mediated tumourigenesis in the gastrointestinal tract. World J Gastroenterol 14(24):3792-7 (2008) PMID 18609701 </ref><ref name="PMID18494047">Mechanisms of biliary carcinogenesis and growth. World J Gastroenterol 14(19):2986-9 (2008) PMID 18494047 </ref><ref name="PMID17657831">Colorectal carcinogenesis: road maps to cancer. World J Gastroenterol 13(28):3784-91 (2007) PMID 17657831 </ref><ref name="PMID17457972">Towards a multiscale model of colorectal cancer. World J Gastroenterol 13(9):1399-407 (2007) PMID 17457972 </ref><ref name="PMID17206756">Hepatitis B virus-induced oncogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 13(1):74-81 (2007) PMID 17206756 </ref><ref name="PMID17109513">Methylation in esophageal carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 12(43):6933-40 (2006) PMID 17109513 </ref><ref name="PMID17072946">Hepatic progenitor cells in human liver tumor development. World J Gastroenterol 12(39):6261-5 (2006) PMID 17072946 </ref><ref name="PMID16718758">Latest insights into the effects of Helicobacter pylori infection on gastric carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 12(17):2713-20 (2006) PMID 16718758 </ref><ref name="PMID16437649">Helicobacter pylori-infected animal models are extremely suitable for the investigation of gastric carcinogenesis. 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| align="left" width="800" |<ref name="PMID1860619">Facts and theories concerning the mechanisms of carcinogenesis. FASEB J 5(9):2280-6 (1991) PMID 1860619 </ref><ref name="PMID16464822">Molecular models for the tissue specificity of DNA mismatch repair-deficient carcinogenesis. Nucleic Acids Res 34(3):840-52 (2006) PMID 16464822 </ref><ref name="PMID4554532">Current status of chemical carcinogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 69(4):1052-5 (1972) PMID 4554532 </ref><ref name="PMID9353177">Human cancer syndromes: clues to the origin and nature of cancer. Science 278(5340):1043-50 (1997) PMID 9353177 </ref><ref name="PMID18538731">Tumor cell metabolism: cancer's Achilles' heel. Cancer Cell 13(6):472-82 (2008) PMID 18538731 </ref><ref name="PMID17097558">Thrombin induces tumor growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis: Evidence for a thrombin-regulated dormant tumor phenotype. Cancer Cell 10(5):355-62 (2006) PMID 17097558 </ref><ref name="PMID15607958">Crosslinks and crosstalk: human cancer syndromes and DNA repair defects. Cancer Cell 6(6):539-45 (2004) PMID 15607958 </ref><ref name="PMID14706333">Defective autophagy leads to cancer. Cancer Cell 4(6):422-4 (2003) PMID 14706333 </ref><ref name="PMID16564003">Connecting cancer to the asymmetric division of stem cells. Cell 124(6):1121-3 (2006) PMID 16564003 </ref><ref name="PMID14744434">Principles of tumor suppression. Cell 116(2):235-46 (2004) PMID 14744434 </ref><ref name="PMID11832205">Cancer as a complex genetic trait: tumor susceptibility in humans and mouse models. Cell 108(2):145-52 (2002) PMID 11832205 </ref><ref name="PMID11832204">Cancer modeling in the modern era: progress and challenges. Cell 108(2):135-44 (2002) PMID 11832204 </ref><ref name="PMID11239390">Spontaneous DNA damage, genome instability, and cancer--when DNA replication escapes control. Cell 104(3):329-32 (2001) PMID 11239390 </ref><ref name="PMID10647931">The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100(1):57-70 (2000) PMID 10647931 </ref><ref name="PMID18177721">The biology of cancer: metabolic reprogramming fuels cell growth and proliferation. Cell Metab 7(1):11-20 (2008) PMID 18177721 </ref><ref name="PMID18397746">Cancer: inappropriate expression of stem cell programs? Cell Stem Cell 2(4):297-9 (2008) PMID 18397746 </ref><ref name="PMID8939708">Matrix metalloproteinases and the development of cancer. Chem Biol 3(11):895-904 (1996) PMID 8939708 </ref><ref name="PMID8805238">Failure to unwind causes cancer. Genome stability. Curr Biol 6(3):265-7 (1996) PMID 8805238 </ref><ref name="PMID11602239">How carcinogens (or telomere dysfunction) induce genetic instability: associated-selection model. FEBS Lett 506(3):169-72 (2001) PMID 11602239 </ref><ref name="PMID18416028">Oncoproteins, heterochromatin silencing and microRNAs: a new link for leukemogenesis. Epigenetics 3(1):1-4 (2008) PMID 18416028 </ref><ref name="PMID18285822">XPC polymorphisms play a role in tissue-specific carcinogenesis: a meta-analysis. Eur J Hum Genet 16(6):724-34 (2008) PMID 18285822 </ref><ref name="PMID11568302">Differentiation genes: are they primary targets for human carcinogenesis? Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 226(9):805-13 (2001) PMID 11568302 </ref><ref name="PMID9560381">Hypermutability in carcinogenesis. Genetics 148(4):1619-26 (1998) PMID 9560381 </ref><ref name="PMID9560375">Transient and heritable mutators in adaptive evolution in the lab and in nature. Genetics 148(4):1559-66 (1998) PMID 9560375 </ref><ref name="PMID9560368">The mutation rate and cancer. Genetics 148(4):1483-90 (1998) PMID 9560368 </ref><ref name="PMID17613554">Genome-epigenome interactions in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R96-105 (2007) PMID 17613554 </ref><ref name="PMID17613553">Action at a distance: epigenetic silencing of large chromosomal regions in carcinogenesis. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R88-95 (2007) PMID 17613553 </ref><ref name="PMID17613548">Cancer genes associated with phenotypes in monoallelic and biallelic mutation carriers: new lessons from old players. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R60-6 (2007) PMID 17613548 </ref><ref name="PMID17613546">Cancer genetics of epigenetic genes. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R28-49 (2007) PMID 17613546 </ref><ref name="PMID17613543">miRNAs in cancer: approaches, aetiology, diagnostics and therapy. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R106-13 (2007) PMID 17613543 </ref><ref name="PMID17613542">Non-mammalian models for epigenetic analyses in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R1-6 (2007) PMID 17613542 </ref><ref name="PMID15809277">Histone modifying and chromatin remodelling enzymes in cancer and dysplastic syndromes. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R85-92 (2005) PMID 15809277 </ref><ref name="PMID15809276">Chromatin modifying activity of leukaemia associated fusion proteins. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R77-84 (2005) PMID 15809276 </ref><ref name="PMID15809275">Cancer epigenetics. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R65-76 (2005) PMID 15809275 </ref><ref name="PMID12351584">Cancer epigenomics. Hum Mol Genet 11(20):2479-88 (2002) PMID 12351584 </ref><ref name="PMID11257107">DNA helicase deficiencies associated with cancer predisposition and premature ageing disorders. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):741-6 (2001) PMID 11257107 </ref><ref name="PMID11257100">Aberrant patterns of DNA methylation, chromatin formation and gene expression in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):687-92 (2001) PMID 11257100 </ref><ref name="PMID11257098">Unraveling human cancer in the mouse: recent refinements to modeling and analysis. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):669-75 (2001) PMID 11257098 </ref><ref name="PMID8875255">Mismatch repair defects in human carcinogenesis. Hum Mol Genet 5 Spec No():1489-94 (1996) PMID 8875255 </ref><ref name="PMID17613457">IMPACTS project: preparing therapists to provide best practice early intervention services. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 27(3):73-90 (2007) PMID 17613457 </ref><ref name="PMID17322365">Murine models to evaluate novel and conventional therapeutic strategies for cancer. Am J Pathol 170(3):793-804 (2007) PMID 17322365 </ref><ref name="PMID17071576">The metabolic syndrome: A high-risk state for cancer? Am J Pathol 169(5):1505-22 (2006) PMID 17071576 </ref><ref name="PMID10623645">Gammaherpesviruses and &quot;Hit-and-Run&quot; oncogenesis. Am J Pathol 156(1):1-3 (2000) PMID 10623645 </ref><ref name="PMID7677168">Mutations of cell cycle regulators. Biological and clinical implications for human neoplasia. Am J Pathol 147(3):545-60 (1995) PMID 7677168 </ref><ref name="PMID8129029">Experimental production of primitive neuroectodermal tumors and its relevance to human neuro-oncology. Am J Pathol 144(3):444-8 (1994) PMID 8129029 </ref><ref name="PMID2672826">Animal models of human disease. Pathology and molecular biology of spontaneous neoplasms occurring in transgenic mice carrying and expressing activated cellular oncogenes. Am J Pathol 135(1):39-61 (1989) PMID 2672826 </ref><ref name="PMID6605691">Experimental models of lymphoproliferative disease. The mouse as a model for human non-Hodgkin's lymphomas and related leukemias. Am J Pathol 113(2):237-65 (1983) PMID 6605691 </ref><ref name="PMID7039332">Chemical carcinogenesis: a biologic perspective. Am J Pathol 106(2):271-96 (1982) PMID 7039332 </ref><ref name="PMID207190">Genetics of neoplasia--impact of ecogenetics on oncogenesis. A review. Am J Pathol 91(3):609-88 (1978) PMID 207190 </ref><ref name="PMID335894">Preleukemia. Cytogenetic clues in some confusing disorders. Am J Pathol 89(2):459-76 (1977) PMID 335894 </ref><ref name="PMID20781">Sequential morphologic alterations in the bronchial epithelium of Syrian golden hamsters during N-nitrosomorpholine-induced pulmonary tumorigenesis. Am J Pathol 89(1):59-66 (1977) PMID 20781 </ref><ref name="PMID322509">Carcinogenesis and aging--two related phenomena? A review. Am J Pathol 87(2):444-72 (1977) PMID 322509 </ref><ref name="PMID826168">Relationship of chromosome changes to neoplastic cell transformation. Am J Pathol 85(3):709-38 (1976) PMID 826168 </ref><ref name="PMID793415">The use of liver epithelial cultures for the study of chemical carcinogenesis. Am J Pathol 85(3):739-54 (1976) PMID 793415 </ref><ref name="PMID11697">Interaction of chemical carcinogens and drug-metabolizing enzymes in primary cultures of hepatic cells from the rat. Am J Pathol 85(3):755-72 (1976) PMID 11697 </ref><ref name="PMID4374889">Are viruses important in carcinogenesis? Am J Pathol 77(1):85-102 (1974) PMID 4374889 </ref><ref name="PMID6050759">Astatine-211-induced transplantatble pituitary tumor in the rat with a brief analytic review of cell types of pituitary tumors. Am J Pathol 51(4):601-19 (1967) PMID 6050759 </ref><ref name="PMID18779403">Chromosomal translocations: revisited yet again. Blood 112(6):2183-9 (2008) PMID 18779403 </ref><ref name="PMID2653455">Gene rearrangements and translocations in lymphoproliferative diseases. Blood 73(6):1402-15 (1989) PMID 2653455 </ref><ref name="PMID3513870">Chromosomal fragile sites and cancer-specific rearrangements. Blood 67(4):849-58 (1986) PMID 3513870 </ref><ref name="PMID7259832">Genetically determined susceptibility to cancer. Blood 58(3):415-9 (1981) PMID 7259832 </ref><ref name="PMID1065388">Editorial: The role of cytogenetics in hematology. Blood 48(1):1-7 (1976) PMID 1065388 </ref><ref name="PMID5341467">&quot;Immunologic&quot; oncogenesis. Blood 30(3):388-94 (1967) PMID 5341467 </ref><ref name="PMID13628826">The etiology of leukemia: the status of the virus as causative agent; a review. Blood 14(3):279-94 (1959) PMID 13628826 </ref><ref name="PMID13584473">Studies on submicroscopic structure of leukemias of known or suspected viral origin: a review. Blood 13(11):1017-42 (1958) PMID 13584473 </ref><ref name="PMID4865378">The epidemiology of cancer in animals. Calif Med 107(6):481-9 (1967) PMID 4865378 </ref><ref name="PMID5327850">Etiology of leukemia. A review. Calif Med 104(3):161-5 (1966) PMID 5327850 </ref><ref name="PMID14290931">VIRUSES AND CANCER. Calif Med 102():344-52 (1965) PMID 14290931 </ref><ref name="PMID14801723">A review of the literature on the etiology of Hodgkin's disease. Calif Med 74(2):111-4 (1951) PMID 14801723 </ref><ref name="PMID6367918">Known occupational carcinogens and their significance. Can Med Assoc J 130(7):863-7 (1984) PMID 6367918 </ref><ref name="PMID14084703">CURRENT CONCEPTS OF CANCER. Can Med Assoc J 89():1224-9 (1963) PMID 14084703 </ref><ref name="PMID13773850">The viral etiology of neoplasms--a review. Can Med Assoc J 83():1049-63 (1960) PMID 13773850 </ref><ref name="PMID15254400">Genomic instability in cancer: biological and mathematical approaches. Cell Cycle 3(8):1081-5 (2004) PMID 15254400 </ref><ref name="PMID12963842">Normal cells arrest cancer cells in G2. Cell Cycle 2(5):454 (2003) PMID 12963842 </ref><ref name="PMID12734426">Multistep carcinogenesis: a chain reaction of aneuploidizations. Cell Cycle 2(3):202-10 (2003) PMID 12734426 </ref><ref name="PMID16840508">Colorectal cancer: a model for epigenetic tumorigenesis. Gut 56(1):140-8 (2007) PMID 16840508 </ref><ref name="PMID16118353">Prostaglandins and cancer. Gut 55(1):115-22 (2006) PMID 16118353 </ref><ref name="PMID18693168">Molecular aspects of carcinogenesis in pancreatic cancer. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 7(4):345-56 (2008) PMID 18693168 </ref><ref name="PMID11506289">Hypercarcinogenic state in chronic liver disease. Intern Med 40(7):555-6 (2001) PMID 11506289 </ref><ref name="PMID18982163">Following the cytokine signaling pathway to leukemogenesis: a chronology. J Clin Invest 118(11):3564-73 (2008) PMID 18982163 </ref><ref name="PMID15563660">Aneuploidy and malignancy: an unsolved equation. J Clin Pathol 57(12):1245-9 (2004) PMID 15563660 </ref><ref name="PMID2654188">A mutational theory of leukaemogenesis. J Clin Pathol 42(4):337-40 (1989) PMID 2654188 </ref><ref name="PMID19506345">Radiation-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rodent models: what's different from chemical carcinogenesis? J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 50(4):281-93 (2009) PMID 19506345 </ref><ref name="PMID18596371">Repair system of 7, 8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine as a defense line against carcinogenesis. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 49(4):329-40 (2008) PMID 18596371 </ref><ref name="PMID17019056">Transgenerational effects of radiation and chemicals in mice and humans. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 47 Suppl B():B83-97 (2006) PMID 17019056 </ref><ref name="PMID11393886">Role of the Escherichia coli and human DNA glycosylases that remove 5-formyluracil from DNA in the prevention of mutations. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 42(1):11-9 (2001) PMID 11393886 </ref><ref name="PMID9616488">Cell and molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis and treatment of cancer. Postgrad Med J 74(868):77-88 (1998) PMID 9616488 </ref><ref name="PMID223141">Some aspects of the role of viruses in cancer. Postgrad Med J 55(640):150-8 (1979) PMID 223141 </ref><ref name="PMID18566022">Liver is a target of arsenic carcinogenesis. Toxicol Sci 105(1):24-32 (2008) PMID 18566022 </ref><ref name="PMID14737005">Evaluating the human relevance of chemically induced animal tumors. Toxicol Sci 78(2):181-6 (2004) PMID 14737005 </ref><ref name="PMID12563100">Disruption of gap junctions in toxicity and carcinogenicity. Toxicol Sci 71(2):146-53 (2003) PMID 12563100 </ref><ref name="PMID11606797">Alternative models for carcinogenicity testing. Toxicol Sci 64(1):14-9 (2001) PMID 11606797 </ref><ref name="PMID10478853">The Single Exposure Carcinogen Database: assessing the circumstances under which a single exposure to a carcinogen can cause cancer. Toxicol Sci 50(2):169-85 (1999) PMID 10478853 </ref><ref name="PMID20135713">Iron: an emerging factor in colorectal carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 16(6):663-72 (2010) PMID 20135713 </ref><ref name="PMID19610133">Bile acids as endogenous etiologic agents in gastrointestinal cancer. World J Gastroenterol 15(27):3329-40 (2009) PMID 19610133 </ref><ref name="PMID19360913">Reactive oxygen species: a double-edged sword in oncogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 15(14):1702-7 (2009) PMID 19360913 </ref><ref name="PMID19152444">Midkine translocated to nucleoli and involved in carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 15(4):412-6 (2009) PMID 19152444 </ref><ref name="PMID19058325">Mouse models in liver cancer research: a review of current literature. World J Gastroenterol 14(45):6915-23 (2008) PMID 19058325 </ref><ref name="PMID19034964">Azoxymethane-induced rat aberrant crypt foci: relevance in studying chemoprevention of colon cancer. World J Gastroenterol 14(43):6632-5 (2008) PMID 19034964 </ref><ref name="PMID18609701">Epithelial-mesenchymal transition mediated tumourigenesis in the gastrointestinal tract. World J Gastroenterol 14(24):3792-7 (2008) PMID 18609701 </ref><ref name="PMID18494047">Mechanisms of biliary carcinogenesis and growth. World J Gastroenterol 14(19):2986-9 (2008) PMID 18494047 </ref><ref name="PMID17657831">Colorectal carcinogenesis: road maps to cancer. World J Gastroenterol 13(28):3784-91 (2007) PMID 17657831 </ref><ref name="PMID17457972">Towards a multiscale model of colorectal cancer. World J Gastroenterol 13(9):1399-407 (2007) PMID 17457972 </ref><ref name="PMID17206756">Hepatitis B virus-induced oncogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 13(1):74-81 (2007) PMID 17206756 </ref><ref name="PMID17109513">Methylation in esophageal carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 12(43):6933-40 (2006) PMID 17109513 </ref><ref name="PMID17072946">Hepatic progenitor cells in human liver tumor development. World J Gastroenterol 12(39):6261-5 (2006) PMID 17072946 </ref><ref name="PMID16718758">Latest insights into the effects of Helicobacter pylori infection on gastric carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 12(17):2713-20 (2006) PMID 16718758 </ref><ref name="PMID16437649">Helicobacter pylori-infected animal models are extremely suitable for the investigation of gastric carcinogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 11(45):7063-71 (2005) PMID 16437649 </ref><ref name="PMID16015679">Multidisciplinary approach to understand the pathogenesis of gastric cancer. World J Gastroenterol 11(27):4131-9 (2005) PMID 16015679 </ref><ref name="PMID14669304">Aberrant crypt foci as microscopic precursors of colorectal cancer. World J Gastroenterol 9(12):2642-9 (2003) PMID 14669304 </ref><ref name="PMID9657088">Hepatocyte death in hepatocarcinogenesis. Hepatology 28(1):1-5 (1998) PMID 9657088 </ref>
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| bgcolor="#dfdfdf" | '''Medline Suchterm/ Synonyme'''
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| bgcolor="#00dfdf" | '''Was ist das'''
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| bgcolor="#dfdfdf" | '''Physiologie'''
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| bgcolor="#dfdfdf" | '''Transgen'''
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| bgcolor="#dfdfdf" | '''Mutation'''
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| bgcolor="#dfdfdf" | '''Polymorphismus'''
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| bgcolor="#dfdfdf" | '''Genexpression'''
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== Bibliographie ==
<references />
<references />


 
[[Kategorie:Medizin]]
 
{{PPA-Eisen}}
{{LinkWP_Miniartikel|Txt=Karzinogenese|Link=Karzinogenese}}

Version vom 13. Dezember 2013, 21:36 Uhr

Unter der Karzinogenese versteht man die Entstehung und Entwicklung von bösartigen Zellen (Tumorzellen, Krebszellen) aus normalem Zellgewebe.

Früheres Dreistufenmodell

Früher ging man von einem Dreistufenmodell aus. Inzwischen mehren sich die Erkenntnisse, dass die Tumorentstehung wesentlich komplexer ist.

Initation

  • Mutation einer Zelle, durch ein Karzinogen (krebsauslösendes Agens) verursacht

Promotion

  • Vermehrung der mutierten Zelle, durch einen Wachstumsreiz angestoßen
  • Weitergabe der Mutation an die Tochterzellen

Progression

  • Weitere Vermehrung der mutierten Zellen
  • Entdifferenzierung der Zellen (die mutieren Zellen zeigen unterschiedliche Eigenschaften)
  • Ausbildung eines Tumorgewebes
  • Gefäßeinsprossung in den Tumor
  • Ausbildung von Metastasen (Tochtergeschwülsten) in der näheren Umgebung oder an anderen Körperstellen

Zeitverlauf

Zwischen der ersten Mutation in einer Zelle und dem Ausbilden von Tumorgewebe kann ein Zeitraum von Jahren oder mehreren Jahrzehnten liegen.

Bitte beachten

Bitte beachten Sie den Warnhinweis Gesundheitsthemen.

Bibliographie

Freie Übersichtsartikel [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111]
  1. ↑ Facts and theories concerning the mechanisms of carcinogenesis. FASEB J 5(9):2280-6 (1991) PMID 1860619
  2. ↑ Molecular models for the tissue specificity of DNA mismatch repair-deficient carcinogenesis. Nucleic Acids Res 34(3):840-52 (2006) PMID 16464822
  3. ↑ Current status of chemical carcinogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 69(4):1052-5 (1972) PMID 4554532
  4. ↑ Human cancer syndromes: clues to the origin and nature of cancer. Science 278(5340):1043-50 (1997) PMID 9353177
  5. ↑ Tumor cell metabolism: cancer's Achilles' heel. Cancer Cell 13(6):472-82 (2008) PMID 18538731
  6. ↑ Thrombin induces tumor growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis: Evidence for a thrombin-regulated dormant tumor phenotype. Cancer Cell 10(5):355-62 (2006) PMID 17097558
  7. ↑ Crosslinks and crosstalk: human cancer syndromes and DNA repair defects. Cancer Cell 6(6):539-45 (2004) PMID 15607958
  8. ↑ Defective autophagy leads to cancer. Cancer Cell 4(6):422-4 (2003) PMID 14706333
  9. ↑ Connecting cancer to the asymmetric division of stem cells. Cell 124(6):1121-3 (2006) PMID 16564003
  10. ↑ Principles of tumor suppression. Cell 116(2):235-46 (2004) PMID 14744434
  11. ↑ Cancer as a complex genetic trait: tumor susceptibility in humans and mouse models. Cell 108(2):145-52 (2002) PMID 11832205
  12. ↑ Cancer modeling in the modern era: progress and challenges. Cell 108(2):135-44 (2002) PMID 11832204
  13. ↑ Spontaneous DNA damage, genome instability, and cancer--when DNA replication escapes control. Cell 104(3):329-32 (2001) PMID 11239390
  14. ↑ The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100(1):57-70 (2000) PMID 10647931
  15. ↑ The biology of cancer: metabolic reprogramming fuels cell growth and proliferation. Cell Metab 7(1):11-20 (2008) PMID 18177721
  16. ↑ Cancer: inappropriate expression of stem cell programs? Cell Stem Cell 2(4):297-9 (2008) PMID 18397746
  17. ↑ Matrix metalloproteinases and the development of cancer. Chem Biol 3(11):895-904 (1996) PMID 8939708
  18. ↑ Failure to unwind causes cancer. Genome stability. Curr Biol 6(3):265-7 (1996) PMID 8805238
  19. ↑ How carcinogens (or telomere dysfunction) induce genetic instability: associated-selection model. FEBS Lett 506(3):169-72 (2001) PMID 11602239
  20. ↑ Oncoproteins, heterochromatin silencing and microRNAs: a new link for leukemogenesis. Epigenetics 3(1):1-4 (2008) PMID 18416028
  21. ↑ XPC polymorphisms play a role in tissue-specific carcinogenesis: a meta-analysis. Eur J Hum Genet 16(6):724-34 (2008) PMID 18285822
  22. ↑ Differentiation genes: are they primary targets for human carcinogenesis? Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 226(9):805-13 (2001) PMID 11568302
  23. ↑ Hypermutability in carcinogenesis. Genetics 148(4):1619-26 (1998) PMID 9560381
  24. ↑ Transient and heritable mutators in adaptive evolution in the lab and in nature. Genetics 148(4):1559-66 (1998) PMID 9560375
  25. ↑ The mutation rate and cancer. Genetics 148(4):1483-90 (1998) PMID 9560368
  26. ↑ Genome-epigenome interactions in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R96-105 (2007) PMID 17613554
  27. ↑ Action at a distance: epigenetic silencing of large chromosomal regions in carcinogenesis. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R88-95 (2007) PMID 17613553
  28. ↑ Cancer genes associated with phenotypes in monoallelic and biallelic mutation carriers: new lessons from old players. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R60-6 (2007) PMID 17613548
  29. ↑ Cancer genetics of epigenetic genes. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R28-49 (2007) PMID 17613546
  30. ↑ miRNAs in cancer: approaches, aetiology, diagnostics and therapy. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R106-13 (2007) PMID 17613543
  31. ↑ Non-mammalian models for epigenetic analyses in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 16 Spec No 1():R1-6 (2007) PMID 17613542
  32. ↑ Histone modifying and chromatin remodelling enzymes in cancer and dysplastic syndromes. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R85-92 (2005) PMID 15809277
  33. ↑ Chromatin modifying activity of leukaemia associated fusion proteins. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R77-84 (2005) PMID 15809276
  34. ↑ Cancer epigenetics. Hum Mol Genet 14 Spec No 1():R65-76 (2005) PMID 15809275
  35. ↑ Cancer epigenomics. Hum Mol Genet 11(20):2479-88 (2002) PMID 12351584
  36. ↑ DNA helicase deficiencies associated with cancer predisposition and premature ageing disorders. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):741-6 (2001) PMID 11257107
  37. ↑ Aberrant patterns of DNA methylation, chromatin formation and gene expression in cancer. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):687-92 (2001) PMID 11257100
  38. ↑ Unraveling human cancer in the mouse: recent refinements to modeling and analysis. Hum Mol Genet 10(7):669-75 (2001) PMID 11257098
  39. ↑ Mismatch repair defects in human carcinogenesis. Hum Mol Genet 5 Spec No():1489-94 (1996) PMID 8875255
  40. ↑ IMPACTS project: preparing therapists to provide best practice early intervention services. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 27(3):73-90 (2007) PMID 17613457
  41. ↑ Murine models to evaluate novel and conventional therapeutic strategies for cancer. Am J Pathol 170(3):793-804 (2007) PMID 17322365
  42. ↑ The metabolic syndrome: A high-risk state for cancer? Am J Pathol 169(5):1505-22 (2006) PMID 17071576
  43. ↑ Gammaherpesviruses and "Hit-and-Run" oncogenesis. Am J Pathol 156(1):1-3 (2000) PMID 10623645
  44. ↑ Mutations of cell cycle regulators. Biological and clinical implications for human neoplasia. Am J Pathol 147(3):545-60 (1995) PMID 7677168
  45. ↑ Experimental production of primitive neuroectodermal tumors and its relevance to human neuro-oncology. Am J Pathol 144(3):444-8 (1994) PMID 8129029
  46. ↑ Animal models of human disease. Pathology and molecular biology of spontaneous neoplasms occurring in transgenic mice carrying and expressing activated cellular oncogenes. Am J Pathol 135(1):39-61 (1989) PMID 2672826
  47. ↑ Experimental models of lymphoproliferative disease. The mouse as a model for human non-Hodgkin's lymphomas and related leukemias. Am J Pathol 113(2):237-65 (1983) PMID 6605691
  48. ↑ Chemical carcinogenesis: a biologic perspective. Am J Pathol 106(2):271-96 (1982) PMID 7039332
  49. ↑ Genetics of neoplasia--impact of ecogenetics on oncogenesis. A review. Am J Pathol 91(3):609-88 (1978) PMID 207190
  50. ↑ Preleukemia. Cytogenetic clues in some confusing disorders. Am J Pathol 89(2):459-76 (1977) PMID 335894
  51. ↑ Sequential morphologic alterations in the bronchial epithelium of Syrian golden hamsters during N-nitrosomorpholine-induced pulmonary tumorigenesis. Am J Pathol 89(1):59-66 (1977) PMID 20781
  52. ↑ Carcinogenesis and aging--two related phenomena? A review. Am J Pathol 87(2):444-72 (1977) PMID 322509
  53. ↑ Relationship of chromosome changes to neoplastic cell transformation. Am J Pathol 85(3):709-38 (1976) PMID 826168
  54. ↑ The use of liver epithelial cultures for the study of chemical carcinogenesis. Am J Pathol 85(3):739-54 (1976) PMID 793415
  55. ↑ Interaction of chemical carcinogens and drug-metabolizing enzymes in primary cultures of hepatic cells from the rat. Am J Pathol 85(3):755-72 (1976) PMID 11697
  56. ↑ Are viruses important in carcinogenesis? Am J Pathol 77(1):85-102 (1974) PMID 4374889
  57. ↑ Astatine-211-induced transplantatble pituitary tumor in the rat with a brief analytic review of cell types of pituitary tumors. Am J Pathol 51(4):601-19 (1967) PMID 6050759
  58. ↑ Chromosomal translocations: revisited yet again. Blood 112(6):2183-9 (2008) PMID 18779403
  59. ↑ Gene rearrangements and translocations in lymphoproliferative diseases. Blood 73(6):1402-15 (1989) PMID 2653455
  60. ↑ Chromosomal fragile sites and cancer-specific rearrangements. Blood 67(4):849-58 (1986) PMID 3513870
  61. ↑ Genetically determined susceptibility to cancer. Blood 58(3):415-9 (1981) PMID 7259832
  62. ↑ Editorial: The role of cytogenetics in hematology. Blood 48(1):1-7 (1976) PMID 1065388
  63. ↑ "Immunologic" oncogenesis. Blood 30(3):388-94 (1967) PMID 5341467
  64. ↑ The etiology of leukemia: the status of the virus as causative agent; a review. Blood 14(3):279-94 (1959) PMID 13628826
  65. ↑ Studies on submicroscopic structure of leukemias of known or suspected viral origin: a review. Blood 13(11):1017-42 (1958) PMID 13584473
  66. ↑ The epidemiology of cancer in animals. Calif Med 107(6):481-9 (1967) PMID 4865378
  67. ↑ Etiology of leukemia. A review. Calif Med 104(3):161-5 (1966) PMID 5327850
  68. ↑ VIRUSES AND CANCER. Calif Med 102():344-52 (1965) PMID 14290931
  69. ↑ A review of the literature on the etiology of Hodgkin's disease. Calif Med 74(2):111-4 (1951) PMID 14801723
  70. ↑ Known occupational carcinogens and their significance. Can Med Assoc J 130(7):863-7 (1984) PMID 6367918
  71. ↑ CURRENT CONCEPTS OF CANCER. Can Med Assoc J 89():1224-9 (1963) PMID 14084703
  72. ↑ The viral etiology of neoplasms--a review. Can Med Assoc J 83():1049-63 (1960) PMID 13773850
  73. ↑ Genomic instability in cancer: biological and mathematical approaches. Cell Cycle 3(8):1081-5 (2004) PMID 15254400
  74. ↑ Normal cells arrest cancer cells in G2. Cell Cycle 2(5):454 (2003) PMID 12963842
  75. ↑ Multistep carcinogenesis: a chain reaction of aneuploidizations. Cell Cycle 2(3):202-10 (2003) PMID 12734426
  76. ↑ Colorectal cancer: a model for epigenetic tumorigenesis. Gut 56(1):140-8 (2007) PMID 16840508
  77. ↑ Prostaglandins and cancer. Gut 55(1):115-22 (2006) PMID 16118353
  78. ↑ Molecular aspects of carcinogenesis in pancreatic cancer. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 7(4):345-56 (2008) PMID 18693168
  79. ↑ Hypercarcinogenic state in chronic liver disease. Intern Med 40(7):555-6 (2001) PMID 11506289
  80. ↑ Following the cytokine signaling pathway to leukemogenesis: a chronology. J Clin Invest 118(11):3564-73 (2008) PMID 18982163
  81. ↑ Aneuploidy and malignancy: an unsolved equation. J Clin Pathol 57(12):1245-9 (2004) PMID 15563660
  82. ↑ A mutational theory of leukaemogenesis. J Clin Pathol 42(4):337-40 (1989) PMID 2654188
  83. ↑ Radiation-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rodent models: what's different from chemical carcinogenesis? J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 50(4):281-93 (2009) PMID 19506345
  84. ↑ Repair system of 7, 8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine as a defense line against carcinogenesis. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 49(4):329-40 (2008) PMID 18596371
  85. ↑ Transgenerational effects of radiation and chemicals in mice and humans. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 47 Suppl B():B83-97 (2006) PMID 17019056
  86. ↑ Role of the Escherichia coli and human DNA glycosylases that remove 5-formyluracil from DNA in the prevention of mutations. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 42(1):11-9 (2001) PMID 11393886
  87. ↑ Cell and molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis and treatment of cancer. Postgrad Med J 74(868):77-88 (1998) PMID 9616488
  88. ↑ Some aspects of the role of viruses in cancer. Postgrad Med J 55(640):150-8 (1979) PMID 223141
  89. ↑ Liver is a target of arsenic carcinogenesis. Toxicol Sci 105(1):24-32 (2008) PMID 18566022
  90. ↑ Evaluating the human relevance of chemically induced animal tumors. Toxicol Sci 78(2):181-6 (2004) PMID 14737005
  91. ↑ Disruption of gap junctions in toxicity and carcinogenicity. Toxicol Sci 71(2):146-53 (2003) PMID 12563100
  92. ↑ Alternative models for carcinogenicity testing. Toxicol Sci 64(1):14-9 (2001) PMID 11606797
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